Lesson 17

The letter خ and the sound /χ/

The letter خ /χa’un/ denotes a voiceless hard (plain) consonant /χ/, similar to the Russian /х/, which you may hear in the English (Scottish) word ‘loch’ /lɔx/. The difference between Arabic /χ/ and Russian /х/ is that the Arabic sound is formed deeper, where Arabic /q/ is, while Russian /x/ is formed where Russian and English hard /k/ is. In addition, the Arabic consonant /χ/ is pronounced much more vigorously than the Russian consonant, so that a strong jet of air creates a ‘scraping’ sound.

The consonant /χ/ is a moon consonant.

The letter خ is written the same way as ح, but has a single dot on top.

Exercise 1. Read and write it down 5 times.

خَ خُ خِ خَخْ خُخْ خِخْ خِخَخُ خَخُخِ خِخُخَ

The audio for خَ خُ خِ خْ (2 times):

Exercise 2. Check the correct pronunciation of خ by comparing it with ق formed in the same place. Also compare the pronunciation of the neighbouring vowels.

Exercise 3. Compare the pronunciation of خ, ح, ه and their neighbouring vowels in the following syllables and words (words do not need to be memorised).

I

II

III

IV

Exercise 4. Read by pronouncing the double خ sound correctly (you do not need to memorise the words)

The letter غ and sound /ɣ/

The letter غ /ɣajnun/ stands for the hard voiced consonant /ɣ/, which is the voiced counterpart of the consonant /χ/. Since the consonant /ɣ/, as a voiced consonant, is pronounced with less vigour than the voiceless consonant /χ/, the ‘scraping’ sound in it is weaker than in /χ/.

The closest European approximation is the French ‘r’ sound in ‘Paris’ or the Dutch ‘g’ sound in ‘goed.’

The consonant [ɣ] is a moon consonant.

The letter غ is written the same way as ع but has a single dot on top.

Exercise 5. Read and write it down 5 times.

غَ غُ غِ غَغْ غِغْ غُغْ غِغُغَ غَغِغُ غُغَغِ

Exercise 6. Compare the pronunciation of the energetic voiceless خ and the less energetic voiced غ in the following syllables and words (no need to memorise the words here and in the following phonetic exercises).

Exercise 7. Read it by pronouncing the double غ correctly.

Exercise 8. Compare the pronunciation of aspirated ه and the deep velar غ in the following syllables and words.

Exercise 9. Pronounce the following pairs of words, trying not to make غ less voiced. The words with the voiceless خ in the same position are given for comparison.

Exercise 10. Compare the pronunciation of ح, خ, غ and ه in the following words.

I

II

III

IV

Exercise 11. Read and write down with the transcription, mark the stress:

Exercise 12. Right down the transcribed words in Arabic letters.

/muχtalifatun, maɣsalatun, duχūlun, luɣatun, madχalun, χuruʤun, χabīrun, ɣasīlun, χazzа̄nun, ’aχʃа̄bun, ɣurafun, χilа̄lun/

‘Sound’ (Regular) Plurals

Arabic has two types of ‘sound’ plurals: the feminine regular plural and the masculine regular plural.

A. The feminine regular plural is formed by replacing the feminine ending ـَ ةٌ /-atun/ with the feminine ending ـَ اتٌ /-а̄tun/ with the stress shifting to the long /а̄/ in the ending. In the definite state tanween drops out.

Such plurals have:

1) All animate feminine nouns and all adjectives related to them, e.g.:

2) Some inanimate nouns (including animal names) are feminine. Adjectives agree with them according to the general rule (see lesson 8), for example:

Notes:

1. The word فَتَاةٌ — young girl — its plural has the form فَتَيَاتٌ — young girls. The word مَرْأَةٌ — woman — has irregular plural form, made from another stem: نِسَاءٌ — women (compare in English: person — people).
2. The plurals of some masculine nouns are also formed in the feminine regular plural type, as for example نَبَاتَاتٌ (from نَبَاتٌ plant).

B. The masculine regular plural is formed by replacing the tanween ending ـٌ /-un/ with the ending ـُ ونَ /-ūna/ with the stress shifting to the long /ū/ in the ending. In the definite state, the ending ـُ ونَ is retained.

Such a plural has some animate masculine nouns and some adjectives related to them, in particular most relative adjectives, e.g.:

‘Broken’ (irregular) plurals of animate masculine nouns and the adjectives related to them

Many animate masculine nouns and their adjectives have irregular (or broken) plurals.

Here are some examples to memorise:

Exercise 13. Translate the following phrases in the indefinite and definite states into Arabic. (answers on hovering)

1) diligent pupils (m), 2) diligent pupils (f), 3) Russian women, 4) beautiful (handsome) young men, 5) beautiful houses, 6) beautiful magazines, 7) beautiful young girls, 8) new teachers (f), 9) new words, 10) new teachers (m), 11) big writers (m), 12) prominent writers (f), 13) good pupils (m), 14) good pupils (f), 15) Sudanese farmers (m), 16) Turkish farmers (f), 17) skilful workers (f), 18) skilful engineers (m), 19) big writers (f), 20) Iraqi young men, 21) prominent professors (m), 22) prominent men.

Conjugation of the verb in the plural past tense

Note. The final alif in the 3^rd person plural masculine form is silent.

Exercise 14. Conjugate the following verbs in the singular and plural past tense.

Negative verb form

The negative past tense form of a verb is formed by adding the negative particle مَا before the verb, e.g.: مَا كَتَبْتُ — I did not write, مَا فَهِمْنَا — we did not understand, مَا دَخَلُوا — they did not enter, etc. The particle مَا is written separately.

Exercise 15. a) Conjugate the verbs given in exercise 14 in the negative form. b) Form the positive and negative personal forms of these verbs corresponding to the following personal pronouns.

١) نحن ٢) أنتنّ ٣) أنتَ ٤) هم ٥) أنتِ ٦) هنّ ٧) أنتم ٨) هو ٩) أنا ١٠) هي

Agreement of the verbal predicate with the subject

The verbal predicate which comes before the subject in a sentence is always in the singular, regardless of the number of the subject, and agrees with the subject only in gender and person, e.g.: قرأ المعلم — the teacher (m) read; قرأ المعلمون — the teachers (m) read; قرأت المعلمة — the teacher (f) read; قرأت المعلمات — the teachers (f) read.

If the verbal predicate comes after the subject, it agrees with the subject in full, i.e. in gender, person and number.

A verbal predicate can come after the subject, for example, when there is more than one verbal predicate in a sentence. In this case, only one predicate can come before the subject, and the other predicate (or others) are placed after the subject, e.g.:

١) ذهب الفلاحون الى الحقل وعملوا هناك
٢) ذهبت الغلاحات الى الحقل وعملن هناك

Since personal pronouns are most often not used with verbal predicate, but only implied (see lesson 16), in these cases the predicate is naturally in full agreement with the implied subject, for example: هل فهمتم؟ — did you understand?; عملوا في البستان — they worked in the garden.

The words for the text of lesson 17

Expression

فِى ٱلْخَرِيفِ in the autumn

Notes

The verb دَخَلَ — to enter, like the corresponding English verb, is transitive and requires an object in the accusative case without a preposition, for example: دَخَلَ بُسْتَانًا — ‘he entered a garden.’

The demonstrative pronouns هَؤُلَاءِ and أُولَئِكَ contain unmarked long vowels and are pronounced /hа̄’ulа̄’i/ and /’ulа̄’ika/ respectively. These pronouns are used to refer to pluralised animate nouns of both genders and can, as a general rule, act in a sentence as a subject and as an attribute (see lesson 12).

Exercise 16. Make up at least 10 sentences using the words for the text of lesson 17.

Text of Lesson 17

١) لبست وخرجت من الشقة وذهبت الى المعهد وبعد الدرس خرجت من المعهد وذهبت الى المكتبة. دخلت المكتبة وأخذت من خزانة خشبية جريدة عربية جديدة وقرأت اخبارا مختلفة عن البلاد العربية.
٢) توجد الآن فى تلك الخزانة الخشبية مجلات مختلفة. توجد هناك مجلات روسية وعربية وانكليزية وفرنسية وتركية.
٣) ذهب هؤلاء التلامذة الى المدرسة فى الخريف ودرسوا هناك اللغة الروسية.
٤) دخلت اولئك التلميذات العربيات المجتهدات الغرفة وجلسن هناك الى مقعد قرب النافذة.
٥) ذهبت هؤلاء الفتيات الى المكتبة وأخذن كتبا اجنبية مختلفة من الخزانة وخرجن من المكتبة.
٦) دخل اولئك الفلاحون السودانيون بستانا وعملوا هناك وبعد العمل خرجوا من البستان وذهبوا الى القرية.
٧) الى اين ذهبت هؤلاء النساء بعد الغداء؟ ذهبن بعد الغداء الى المخزن الكبير.
٨) اين عمل اولئك المهندسون؟ عملوا فى ذلك المعمل الجديد.
٩) اين هؤلاء المعلمون والمعلمات الآن؟ المعلمون والمعلمات الآن فى تلك الغرفة الكبيرة.
١٠) هل قرأتم هذه الجريدة؟ نعم، قرأنا هذه الجريدة بعد الغداء. هل سمعتن الاخبار عن المغرب؟ نعم، سمعنا الاخبار عن المغرب.

Dialogue

١) هل ذهبت الى المعهد؟ نعم، ذهبت الى المعهد.
٢) هل ذهب التلامذة الى المكتبة؟ لا، ما ذهب التلامذة الى المكتبة. ذهبوا الى المدرسة.
٣) هل خرجتم من البيت؟ لا، ما خرجنا من البيت.
٤) هل عملن فى المعمل؟ لا، ما عملن فى المعمل.
٥) هل دخلت هؤلاء الفلاحات البستان؟ لا، ما دخلن البستان.
٦) هل جلسوا فى الغرفة؟ لا، ما جلسوا هناك.
٧) هل أخذتم الكتب من المكتبة؟ لا، ما أَخذنا الكتب من المكتبة.
٨) هل درست لغة اجنبية فى المدرسة؟ نعم، درست هناك اللغة الانكليزية. وهل درست فى المدرسة اللغة العربية؟ لا، ما درست اللغة العربية فى المدرسة.
٩) هل سمعتم الاخبار الجديدة؟ لا، ما سمعنا الاخبار الجديدة.
١٠) هل ذهبتن الى المخزن؟ لا، ما ذهبنا الى المخزن.

Exercise 17. a) Write down the text and the dialogue, translate them. b) Make a syntactic analysis of the passages # 5, 6, 9, 10. c) Transcribe the passage # 10.

Exercise 18. Translate from English into Arabic.

1. We went to the library and read English books there.
2. Who went to school in the autumn? Children went to school in the autumn. What did they study there? They studied the Russian language.
3. They got dressed and went out of the house and went to the institute. After the lessons they went out of the institute and went to the library. They entered the library, took a new Arabic newspaper from a wooden cupboard, and read various news about the Arab countries.
4. These Sudanese farmers (f) entered a garden and worked there, and after the work they went out of the garden and went to the village.
5. Did you go to the library? Yes, we went to the library. What did you take from the library? We took foreign magazines. And did you take books? No, we did not take books.
6. These new pupils entered that room and sat down near the window. They read the English words on the blackboard and wrote these words (down).
7. What did you read in this newspaper? We read in this newspaper news about Morocco.
8. The workers went to the factory. After the work, they came out of the factory and went home.
9. Have you studied the new words in this lesson? Yes, we have studied these words.
10. These are workers, and those are farmers. These workers worked in the factory, and those farmers worked in the field.